Calling Between Programs

Cross-Program Invocations

The Velas runtime allows programs to call each other via a mechanism called cross-program invocation. Calling between programs is achieved by one program invoking an instruction of the other. The invoking program is halted until the invoked program finishes processing the instruction.

For example, a client could create a transaction that modifies two accounts, each owned by separate on-chain programs:

let message = Message::new(vec![
    token_instruction::pay(&alice_pubkey),
    acme_instruction::launch_missiles(&bob_pubkey),
]);
client.send_and_confirm_message(&[&alice_keypair, &bob_keypair], &message);

A client may to instead allow the acme program to conveniently invoke token instructions on the client's behalf:

let message = Message::new(vec![
    acme_instruction::pay_and_launch_missiles(&alice_pubkey, &bob_pubkey),
]);
client.send_and_confirm_message(&[&alice_keypair, &bob_keypair], &message);

Given two on-chain programs token and acme, each implementing instructions pay() and launch_missiles() respectively, acme can be implemented with a call to a function defined in the token module by issuing a cross-program invocation:

mod acme {
    use token_instruction;

    fn launch_missiles(accounts: &[AccountInfo]) -> Result<()> {
        ...
    }

    fn pay_and_launch_missiles(accounts: &[AccountInfo]) -> Result<()> {
        let alice_pubkey = accounts[1].key;
        let instruction = token_instruction::pay(&alice_pubkey);
        invoke(&instruction, accounts)?;

        launch_missiles(accounts)?;
    }

invoke() is built into Velas' runtime and is responsible for routing the given instruction to the token program via the instruction's program_id field.

Note that invoke requires the caller to pass all the accounts required by the instruction being invoked. This means that both the executable account (the ones that matches the instruction's program id) and the accounts passed to the instruction procesor.

Before invoking pay(), the runtime must ensure that acme didn't modify any accounts owned by token. It does this by applying the runtime's policy to the current state of the accounts at the time acme calls invoke vs. the initial state of the accounts at the beginning of the acme's instruction. After pay() completes, the runtime must again ensure that token didn't modify any accounts owned by acme by again applying the runtime's policy, but this time with the token program ID. Lastly, after pay_and_launch_missiles() completes, the runtime must apply the runtime policy one more time, where it normally would, but using all updated pre_* variables. If executing pay_and_launch_missiles() up to pay() made no invalid account changes, pay() made no invalid changes, and executing from pay() until pay_and_launch_missiles() returns made no invalid changes, then the runtime can transitively assume pay_and_launch_missiles() as whole made no invalid account changes, and therefore commit all these account modifications.

Instructions that require privileges

The runtime uses the privileges granted to the caller program to determine what privileges can be extended to the callee. Privileges in this context refer to signers and writable accounts. For example, if the instruction the caller is processing contains a signer or writable account, then the caller can invoke an instruction that also contains that signer and/or writable account.

This privilege extension relies on the fact that programs are immutable, except during the special case of program upgrades.

In the case of the acme program, the runtime can safely treat the transaction's signature as a signature of a token instruction. When the runtime sees the token instruction references alice_pubkey, it looks up the key in the acme instruction to see if that key corresponds to a signed account. In this case, it does and thereby authorizes the token program to modify Alice's account.

Program signed accounts

Programs can issue instructions that contain signed accounts that were not signed in the original transaction by using Program derived addresses. To sign an account with program derived addresses, a program may invoke_signed().

        invoke_signed(
            &instruction,
            accounts,
            &[&["First addresses seed"],
              &["Second addresses first seed", "Second addresses second seed"]],
        )?;

Call Depth

Cross-program invocations allow programs to invoke other programs directly but the depth is constrained currently to 4.

Reentrancy

Reentrancy is currently limited to direct self recursion capped at a fixed depth. This restriction prevents situations where a program might invoke another from an intermediary state without the knowledge that it might later be called back into. Direct recursion gives the program full control of its state at the point that it gets called back.

Program Derived Addresses

Program derived addresses allow programmaticly generated signature to be used when calling between programs.

Using a program derived address, a program may be given the authority over an account and later transfer that authority to another. This is possible because the program can act as the signer in the transaction that gives authority.

For example, if two users want to make a wager on the outcome of a game in Velas, they must each transfer their wager's assets to some intermediary that will honor their agreement. Currently, there is no way to implement this intermediary as a program in Velas because the intermediary program cannot transfer the assets to the winner.

This capability is necessary for many DeFi applications since they require assets to be transferred to an escrow agent until some event occurs that determines the new owner.

Decentralized Exchanges that transfer assets between matching bid and ask orders.
Auctions that transfer assets to the winner.
Games or prediction markets that collect and redistribute prizes to the winners.

Program derived address:

Allow programs to control specific addresses, called program addresses, in such a way that no external user can generate valid transactions with signatures for those addresses.
Allow programs to programmatically sign for program addresses that are present in instructions invoked via Cross-Program Invocations.

Given the two conditions, users can securely transfer or assign the authority of on-chain assets to program addresses and the program can then assign that authority elsewhere at its discretion.

Private keys for program addresses

A Program address does not lie on the ed25519 curve and therefore has no valid private key associated with it, and thus generating a signature for it is impossible. While it has no private key of its own, it can be used by a program to issue an instruction that includes the Program address as a signer.

Hash-based generated program addresses

Program addresses are deterministically derived from a collection of seeds and a program id using a 256-bit pre-image resistant hash function. Program address must not lie on the ed25519 curve to ensure there is no associated private key. During generation, an error will be returned if the address is found to lie on the curve. There is about a 50/50 chance of this happening for a given collection of seeds and program id. If this occurs a different set of seeds or a seed bump (additional 8 bit seed) can be used to find a valid program address off the curve.

Deterministic program addresses for programs follow a similar derivation path as Accounts created with SystemInstruction::CreateAccountWithSeed which is implemented with Pubkey::create_with_seed.

For reference, that implementation is as follows:

pub fn create_with_seed(
    base: &Pubkey,
    seed: &str,
    program_id: &Pubkey,
) -> Result<Pubkey, SystemError> {
    if seed.len() > MAX_ADDRESS_SEED_LEN {
        return Err(SystemError::MaxSeedLengthExceeded);
    }

    Ok(Pubkey::new(
        hashv(&[base.as_ref(), seed.as_ref(), program_id.as_ref()]).as_ref(),
    ))
}

Programs can deterministically derive any number of addresses by using seeds. These seeds can symbolically identify how the addresses are used.

From Pubkey:

/// Generate a derived program address
///     * seeds, symbolic keywords used to derive the key
///     * program_id, program that the address is derived for
pub fn create_program_address(
    seeds: &[&[u8]],
    program_id: &Pubkey,
) -> Result<Pubkey, PubkeyError>

/// Find a valid off-curve derived program address and its bump seed
///     * seeds, symbolic keywords used to derive the key
///     * program_id, program that the address is derived for
pub fn find_program_address(
    seeds: &[&[u8]],
    program_id: &Pubkey,
) -> Option<(Pubkey, u8)> {
    let mut bump_seed = [std::u8::MAX];
    for _ in 0..std::u8::MAX {
        let mut seeds_with_bump = seeds.to_vec();
        seeds_with_bump.push(&bump_seed);
        if let Ok(address) = create_program_address(&seeds_with_bump, program_id) {
            return Some((address, bump_seed[0]));
        }
        bump_seed[0] -= 1;
    }
    None
}

Using program addresses

Clients can use the create_program_address function to generate a destination address. In this example, we assume that create_program_address(&[&["escrow"]], &escrow_program_id) generates a valid program address that is off the curve.

// deterministically derive the escrow key
let escrow_pubkey = create_program_address(&[&["escrow"]], &escrow_program_id);

// construct a transfer message using that key
let message = Message::new(vec![
    token_instruction::transfer(&alice_pubkey, &escrow_pubkey, 1),
]);

// process the message which transfer one 1 token to the escrow
client.send_and_confirm_message(&[&alice_keypair], &message);

Programs can use the same function to generate the same address. In the function below the program issues a token_instruction::transfer from a program address as if it had the private key to sign the transaction.

fn transfer_one_token_from_escrow(
    program_id: &Pubkey,
    accounts: &[AccountInfo],
) -> ProgramResult {
    // User supplies the destination
    let alice_pubkey = keyed_accounts[1].unsigned_key();

    // Deterministically derive the escrow pubkey.
    let escrow_pubkey = create_program_address(&[&["escrow"]], program_id);

    // Create the transfer instruction
    let instruction = token_instruction::transfer(&escrow_pubkey, &alice_pubkey, 1);

    // The runtime deterministically derives the key from the currently
    // executing program ID and the supplied keywords.
    // If the derived address matches a key marked as signed in the instruction
    // then that key is accepted as signed.
    invoke_signed(&instruction, accounts, &[&["escrow"]])
}

Instructions that require signers

The addresses generated with create_program_address and find_program_address are indistinguishable from any other public key. The only way for the runtime to verify that the address belongs to a program is for the program to supply the seeds used to generate the address.

The runtime will internally call create_program_address, and compare the result against the addresses supplied in the instruction.

Examples

Refer to Developing with Rust and Developing with C for examples of how to use cross-program invocation.

Cross-Program Invocations​

Instructions that require privileges​

Program signed accounts​

Call Depth​

Reentrancy​

Program Derived Addresses​

Private keys for program addresses​

Hash-based generated program addresses​

Using program addresses​

Instructions that require signers​

Examples​